Macroscopic manifestations of inflammation

Four so-called "Cels signs" are derived from the macroscopic manifestations of skin inflammation, to which Virchow added a fifth:
 * 1) rubor - redness of the inflammatory focus caused by hyperemia;
 * 2) calor - heating of the inflammatory focus;
 * 3) dolor - soreness of the inflammatory focus by irritation of peripheral nerve endings with acidic pH and cytokines;
 * 4) tumor - swelling of the inflammatory focus by expansion of capillaries and inflammatory edema;
 * 5) functio laesa - attenuation or, on the contrary, increased function (e.g. hypersecretion of mucus by an inflamed mucous membrane).

General manifestations of inflammation

 * 1) Elevated temperature;
 * 2) leukocytosis;
 * 3) increased sedimentation;
 * 4) increased levels of acute phase proteins.

Related Articles

 * Microscopic manifestations of inflammation
 * Manifestations of inflammation