Operant conditioning

Principles
In operant conditioning the behaviour is determined by its punishing and/or rewarding consequences, in contrast to the natural reflexes associated with classical conditioning. In other words, the behaviour is not part of the natural repertoir of the individual but is acquired (learned) through reward and punishment.

Elements of Operant Conditioning
There are 4 elements that describe operant conditioning:
 * 1) positive reinforcement;
 * 2) negative reinforcment;
 * 3) punishment;
 * 4) extinction.

Reinforcement Schedules and their Results
The pattern and frequency of reinforcement (be it positive or negative) is directly proportional to how quickly the behaviour is learned. However, the more dependent the behaviour is on reinforcement the more vulnerable is also to extinction. The various schedules are listed below, in descending order of vulnerability to extinction.

Reward and Punishing Centers
The major reward centers are located throughout the medial forebrain bundle. The lateral and ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus are especially involved.

The major punishment centers are located in the central gray area around the aqueduct of Sylvius, starting from the level of the mesencephalon and extending rostrally into the periventricular zones of the hypothalamus & thalamus. Some less potent punishment areas are in the amygdala and hippocampus.

Habituation Versus Reinforcement
Sensory experience will be remembered only if it causes reward or punishment. This plays a very important role in learning and memory. It is very difficult for the brain to learn and remember new pieces of information which cannot be linked to a reward or punishment, even in abstract or vague, indirect way. A new sensory stimulus usually excites multiple areas of the brain but it will be retained only if the stimulus elicits a sense as in reward or punishment. If the stimulus does not elicit any rewarding/punishing sense and is keep repeating, this will cause habituation (desensitization) and eventually be ignored (a way of filtering important and valuable information).

Related articles

 * Classical Conditioning