Portal:Questions for final examination in biochemistry

I. PHYSICAL, BIOANORGANIC AND BIOORGANIC CHEMISTRY

 * 1) Physical and chemical properties of water, its importance in human organism
 * 2) Solubility of compounds, analytical and colloidal dispersions, diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, oncotic pressure, biochemical examples
 * 3) Energetics of chemical reactions, enthalpy, entropy, Gibb?s energy, metabolic applications
 * 4) Kinetics of reversible and consecutive reactions, chemical equilibrium, equilibrium law
 * 5) Kinetics of chemical reactions, application to enzymology
 * 6) Catalysts and biocatalysts, importance for biochemistry
 * 7) Electrolytic dissociation, dissociation constant, strong and weak electrolytes, biochemical examples
 * 8) Brönsted?s theory of acids and bases, equilibrium in protolytic reaction biochemical examples
 * 9) Ionic product of water, pH and its importance for medicine
 * 10) Ampholytes, isoelectric point, biochemical examples
 * 11) Buffer solution, pH calculation, importance in human organism
 * 12) Oxidation and reduction, biochemical examples
 * 13) Redox potential, dependency on the concentration of the reactants and pH, biochemical examples
 * 14) Solubility product, biochemical examples
 * 15) Complex formation, importance for biochemistry and medicine
 * 16) Chemical properties of basic biogenic elements. Reactive forms of oxygen
 * 17) Biologically and toxicologically important elements of the main groups of the periodic table.
 * 18) Biologically and toxicologically important nontransition elements. Nitrogen inorganic compounds of biological importance
 * 19) Trace elements ? biological and metabolic importance.
 * 20) Structure of organic compounds, isomerism, examples in metabolic pathways
 * 21) Relationship between structures and properties of organic compounds, biochemical examples
 * 22) Medically and toxicologically important halogeno and nitroderivatives of hydrocarbons
 * 23) Medically important sulphur-containing derivatives of hydrocarbons
 * 24) Amines, importance in biochemistry
 * 25) Alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, biochemical examples
 * 26) Carboxylic acids, biochemical examples
 * 27) Esters of carboxylic and inorganic acids, biochemical examples
 * 28) Functional and substituted derivatives of carboxylic acids, biochemical examples
 * 29) Importance of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur-containing heterocycles
 * 30) Proteogenic amino acids, division, structures, reactions, peptides, biological importance.
 * 31) Proteins - structure, properties and functions. Conformation of proteins, importance for their biological function
 * 32) Saccharides, classification, structure, stereochemistry, biological importance.,
 * 33) Reqactions of saccharides, disaccharides, N- and O- glykosidic bound, examples
 * 34) Homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides
 * 35) Proteoglycanes, glycoproteins, structure, properties
 * 36) Lipids, definition, classification, structure, properties, functions in human organism
 * 37) Phosphatidic acid and its derivatives.
 * 38) Phospho- anf glycosphingolipids, structure properties, function in human organism
 * 39) Sterols, classification, structure, properties, functions in human organism
 * 40) Bile acids and steroid hormones ? structure, properties and function in human organism.

II. METABOLISM

 * 1) Structure of enzymes (coenzymes, oligomeric structure). Multiple forms of enzymes and isoenzymes. Medical application of enzymology
 * 2) Enzymatic activity, influence of physical and chemical conditions, regulation (expression, allosteric effects, covalent modification)
 * 3) Respiratory chain Oxidative phosphorylation
 * 4) Energy-rich compounds, substrate level phosphorylation, drive of endergonic reactions
 * 5) Citric acid cycle, amphibolic character of the citric acid cycle, regulation
 * 6) Cell membrane - structure, assembly, function, transport across membranes
 * 7) Common mechanisms of amino acids conversion, deamination, transamination, nitrogen balance
 * 8) Formation and detoxification of ammonia, urea cycle and its regulation, hyperammonaemia
 * 9) Catabolism of the carbon skeleton of amino acids, integration of amino acids into metabolic pathways
 * 10) Amino acids of pyruvate, oxalacetate and 2-oxoglutarat family, their catabolism
 * 11) Amino acids of succinyl CoA family, their catabolism
 * 12) Metabolism of branched amino acids
 * 13) Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine, defects
 * 14) Metabolism of tryptophane, major and minor pathways, defects in its resorption
 * 15) Metabolism of sulphur-containing amino acids
 * 16) Conversion of amino acids into special products (formation, conversion and importance of creatine, formation, conversion and importance of S-adenosylmethionine)
 * 17) Biosynthesis, biodegradation and function of the most important biogenic amines and catecholamines
 * 18) Glycolysis, regulation
 * 19) Gluconeogenesis, regulation
 * 20) Degradation and synthesis of glycogen, regulation, defects
 * 21) Pentose phosphate pathways, regulation
 * 22) Metabolism of galactose and fructose, defects
 * 23) Metabolism of glucuronic acid and its metabolic importance
 * 24) Biosynthesis "de novo" of saturated fatty acids, regulation. Origin of acetyl CoA for biosynthesis of palmitate.
 * 25) Palmitate as substrate for synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and long-chain fatty acids
 * 26) Formation of ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA, metabolic causes and importance
 * 27) Carnitine system, oxidation of fatty acids, energy balance
 * 28) Biosynthesis, conversion and transport of triacylglycerols
 * 29) Structure, metabolism and function of phosphatide acid and phospholipids
 * 30) Biosynthesis of sphingosine, sphingolipids, structure, properties and function in organism
 * 31) Synthesis and degradation of eicosanoids, cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase pathways
 * 32) Biosynthesis of cholesterol and its regulation, role of HMG-CoA reductase. Transport of the endogenic and exogenic cholesterol
 * 33) Conversion and excretion of cholesterol, bile acids
 * 34) Biosynthesis, degradation and function of steroid hormones
 * 35) Transport of lipids, role of lipoproteins, structure of lipoprotein particles. Formation, conversion, and role of chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDL lipoproteins
 * 36) Biosynthesis of hem, defects of synthesis, porphyrias
 * 37) Degradation of tetrapyrroles, hyperbilirubinaemia, jaundices
 * 38) Pyrimidine nucleotides, metabolism, regulation, inhibitors, defects
 * 39) Purine nucleotides, metabolism, regulation, inhibitors, defects
 * 40)  Biosynthesis of deoxyribonucleotides and its regulation, inhibitors

III. FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGAN AND FUNCTIONAL BIOCHEMISTRY.

 * 1) Regulation and coordination of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
 * 2) Glycaemia and its regulation. Glucose tolerance test. Glycosylated haemoglobin.
 * 3) Metabolic interrelation between glucose and other nutrients; Cori cycle.
 * 4) Metabolism of fat tissue.
 * 5) Regulation of haeme biosynthesis; differences between the hepatocyte and erythroid cell; iron metabolism.
 * 6) Regulation of metabolism at the neurohumoral level ? ?integration systems of the organism?.
 * 7) Hormonal regulation of water and mineral metabolism.
 * 8) Hormonal regulation of bone metabolism.
 * 9) The integration of metabolism and the provision of tissue fuel.
 * 10) Biochemical processes in the stomach; gastric juice; gastric mucins, acid-resistant lipases.
 * 11) Intestinal digestion; role of the pancreas in the digestion.
 * 12) Biochemical functions of hepatocytes and liver; assessment of liver function and damage.
 * 13) Biotransformation of endogenous and exogenous compounds; phases of the biotransformation. Toxic and carcinogenic compounds in the environment.
 * 14) Buffer systems of the organism.
 * 15) Bicarbonate system, its significance in maintaining the acido-base balance.
 * 16) The role of haemoglobin, proteins and phosphates in maintaining the acido-base balance.
 * 17) Erythrocyte metabolism.
 * 18) Haemocoagulation.
 * 19) Urine ? properties and its physiological and pathological constituents.
 * 20) Collagen family ? structure, properties, metabolism, function.
 * 21) Adhesive glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix.
 * 22) Biochemistry of the cartilage and bone.
 * 23) Biochemistry of the skin. Biochemical basis of touch.
 * 24) Contractile apparatus, the control of smooth and skeletal muscle contraction.
 * 25) Biochemistry of vision - Wald cycle, transducin cycle, the role of cGMP-gated ion channels.
 * 26) Biochemistry of hearing.
 * 27) Biochemistry of olfaction.
 * 28) Biochemistry of taste.
 * 29) Biochemical events in the synapsis; neurotransmitters.
 * 30) Receptors ? structure and function.
 * 31) Steroid hormones and their functions in regulatory processes.
 * 32) Peptide hormones and their functions in regulatory processes.
 * 33) Thyroid hormones and their functions in regulatory processes.
 * 34) Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, lipoxins. Hydroxyepoxytriene acids.
 * 35) Molecular basis of the humoral immune response.
 * 36) Molecular basis of the cellular immune response.
 * 37) Lipid-soluble vitamins.
 * 38) Water-soluble vitamins.
 * 39) Structure, constituents and properties of cell membranes.
 * 40) Membrane transport.

IV. BASIC CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 * 1) Signal transduction, membrane receptors and their ligands, G-proteins
 * 2) Second messenger pathways and signal transduction
 * 3) Signalling using Ras proteins, cascade of kinases, JAK-STAT signaling pathway
 * 4) Activation of phospholipases in signal transduction
 * 5) NO signalling. Overview of signalling pathways and significance
 * 6) Intracellular receptors and their ligands, HSP, interactions of intracellular receptors with DNA
 * 7) Intercellular communication
 * 8) Structure and function of nucleic acids
 * 9) Organization of prokaryotic, eukaryotic and mitochondrial genome
 * 10) Replication of eukaryotic DNA, DNA replication apparatus and its regulation
 * 11) DNA repair
 * 12) Transcription of eukaryotic DNA, transcription apparatus and its regulation, cis- and trans-regulation elements
 * 13) mRNA, structure, synthesis, posttranscriptional modifications, RNA interference
 * 14) Regulation of gene expression at the level of transcription
 * 15) Genetic code and its properties
 * 16) Eukaryotic, prokaryotic and mitochondrial translation
 * 17) Regulation of gene expression at the level of translation, inhibitors of translation, antibiotics as translation inhibitors
 * 18) Posttranslational modification of proteins
 * 19) Protein transport and targeting, modification and sorting of proteins in Golgi apparatus
 * 20) Biosynthesis of glycoproteins, their structure and significance
 * 21) Restriction enzymes and their usage, DNA modification and construction of recombinant DNA molecules
 * 22) DNA cloning, transfer of foreign genetic information into bacterial and mammalian cells
 * 23) DNA diagnostics, techniques, RFLP
 * 24) Gene therapy, transfer of the genetic material in gene therapy
 * 25) Blotting, hybridization techniques and their application in clinical diagnostics, hybridization probes
 * 26) Methods of cell fractionation, electrophoretic analysis of nucleic acids and proteins,
 * 27) Polymerase chain reaction, PCR applications in clinical diagnostics, RT-PCR and application of this technique, DNA sequencing
 * 28) Hereditary diseases and their diagnostics
 * 29) Hereditary predisposition to cancer and its diagnostics
 * 30) Types of human gene mutations, hereditary and somatic mutations
 * 31) Polymorphisms, significance and detection, minisatellite and microsatellite markers and their analysis
 * 32) Retroviruses and pararetroviruses, structure and replication
 * 33) Protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
 * 34) Cell cycle, cyclins and cdks complexes
 * 35) Regulation of cell cycle, the role of tumor suppressor genes
 * 36) Ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of proteins
 * 37) Apoptosis ? initiation, control and effector phase, death receptors and their ligands, caspases
 * 38) Apoptosis ? intrinzic and extrinzic activation pathways, the role of mitochondria in apoptosis
 * 39) Epigenetics, DNA methalation, histone modifications, epigenetic effects in humans
 * 40) DNA recombination, the roles of homologous and nonhomologous recombination