Portal:Exam Topics in Pathophysiology (1LF, GM)

Part I. General Pathophysiology

 * 1) Explain the meaning of the terms: symptom, syndrome, etiology, pathogenesis. Give examples
 * 2) Compensation of a Functional Disturbance. Decompensation. Functional Insufficiency and Failure. Give examples.
 * 3) Significance of Gene Polymorphism. Genetic Predisposition to Diseases.
 * 4) The Instability of the Genome. Mutations.
 * 5) Diseases due to mitochondrial DNA mutations.
 * 6) Autosomal and gonosomal monogenic heredity. Give examples.
 * 7) Polygenic heredity. Give examples.
 * 8) Damage of the Organism Caused by Electric Current.
 * 9) Damage of the Organism Caused by Light, UV and Infrared Radiation.
 * 10) Damage of the Organism Caused by Ionizing Radiation.
 * 11) Damage of the Organism Caused by Heat.
 * 12) Damage to the Organism Caused by Cold. Controlled Hypothermia.
 * 13) Changes Evoked by Immobilization.
 * 14) Intoxication by Chemical Agents: explain the pathogenesis of intoxication by CO, Pb, NO3-, CN-, organic phosphates.
 * 15) Chemical Cancerogens. Effects of the Tobacco Smoking.
 * 16) Efects of ethylalcohol on the organism.
 * 17) Toxins of Plants, animals and bacteria. Give examples.
 * 18) Inflammation. Acute Phase Response. Fever.
 * 19) Systemic Inflammatory Response. Septic Shock. Multiple Organ Failure.
 * 20) Stress Reaction. Reaction of the organism to stress.
 * 21) Allergy. Anaphylactic Reaction.
 * 22) Transplantation Immunity. (GvHD, HvGD)
 * 23) Autoimmune Diseases.
 * 24) Inborn and Acquired Immune Deficits.
 * 25) Dehydration of the organism.
 * 26) Hyperhydration of the organism. Oedema, Ascites.
 * 27) Hypoxia of the Organism. Tissue Hypoxia.
 * 28) Hypoxic and reperfusion damage of the tissue. Pathophysiological basis of oxygen therapy. Oxygen toxicity.
 * 29) Acidification of the Internal Environment.
 * 30) Alcalization of the Internal Environment.
 * 31) Acid-Base and Electrolyte Balance
 * 32) Cell Death. Apoptosis.
 * 33) Regeneration and Reparation of Tissues. Wound Healing.
 * 34) Mechanisms of Malignant Cell Transformation. Tumor Growth
 * 35) Interaction of Tumor with the Organism. Paraneoplastic Syndromes. Tumor metastasis and changes in its properties.
 * 36) Consequences of Insufficient Food Intake. Catabolic States.
 * 37) Pathogenesis of Obesity. Complications of the Obesity.
 * 38) Deficits of Water-soluble Vitamins.
 * 39) Deficits of Fat-soluble Vitamins. Hypervitaminosis.
 * 40) Disorders in Lipid Metabolism. Hyperlipoproteinemia.
 * 41) Disturbances in Purine Metabolism. Diseases due to Disorders in Porphyrin Metabolism.
 * 42) Disturbances in the balance and distribution of natrium and chlorides
 * 43) Disturbances in the balance and distribution of potassium
 * 44)  Disturbances in the balance and distribution of calcium, magnesium and phosphates.
 * 45) Disturbances in the balance and distribution of iron. Trace Elements and Diseases.
 * 46) Disturbances of Growth and Development.
 * 47) Ageing. Diseases in old age. Death.

Blood

 * 1) States evoked by disturbances of stem cells. Clonal Diseases (myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative diseases). Pathophysiology of the bone marrow transplantation.
 * 2) The role of erythropoietin and other Growth Factors in the Pathogenesis of Haematological Diseases.
 * 3) Changes in Granulocyte Count. Deranged Function of Granulocytes.
 * 4) Myelodysplastic Syndrome. Acute Myeloblastic Leukaemia.
 * 5) Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia.
 * 6) Classification of anaemias based on pathogenesis. Changes in the shape, size and hemoglobinization of erythrocytes. Functional consequences (anaemic syndrome).
 * 7) Aplastic Anaemias. Anaemia of Chronic Diseases.
 * 8) Anaemias caused by folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency.
 * 9) Iron Deficiency Anaemia.
 * 10) Intracorpuscular Haemolytic Anaemias.
 * 11) Extracorpuscular Haemolytic Anaemias.
 * 12) Thalassaemias. Haemoglobinopathies.
 * 13) Polycythaemias.
 * 14) Acute lymphoblastic and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.
 * 15) Lymphomas.
 * 16) Multiple Myeloma (plasmocytoma).
 * 17) Pathophysiology of bone marrow transplantation
 * 18) Complications of blood transfusion.
 * 19) Causes of the haemorhagic diatheses.
 * 20) Vasculopathies.
 * 21) Changes in platelet counts and disturbances of their function.
 * 22) Coagulopathies.
 * 23) Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC).
 * 24) Thrombophilia, Thrombosis and Thromboembolism..
 * 25) Hypersplenism. Splenomegaly. Extramedullar Haemopoiesis.

Heart and Circulation

 * 1) Causes and pathogenesis of the arterial hypertension.
 * 2) Consequences of arterial hypertension.
 * 3) Pulmonary Hypertension. Cor Pulmonale.
 * 4) Arterial Hypotension.
 * 5) Pathophysiological mechanisms of the circulatory shock.
 * 6) Reversible and irreversible stages of the circulatory shock.
 * 7) Haemodynamic consequences of right-to-left and left-to-right cardiac shunts.
 * 8) Stenosis and insufficiency of the mitral valve.
 * 9) Stenosis and insufficiency of the aortic valve.
 * 10) The Valve Diseases of the Right Heart.
 * 11) Cardiomyopathies.
 * 12) Disturbances of the Myocardial Blood Supply. Angina Pectoris
 * 13) Myocardial Infarction.
 * 14) Consequences and complications of myocardial infarction.
 * 15) Constrictive Pericarditis. Low Cardiac Output States.
 * 16) Definitions, classification and causes of heart arrhytmias.
 * 17) Pathogenesis of arrythmias, local and systemic factors.
 * 18) Disturbances in the Generation of Heart Action Potentials.
 * 19) Disturbances in the Conduction and Spreading of Heart Action Potentials.
 * 20) Sinus and supraventricular arrhytmias.
 * 21) Ventricular arrhytmias.
 * 22) Consequences of arrhytmias in the circulation.
 * 23) Causes and pathophysiological mechanisms of heart failure.
 * 24) Compensatory mechanisms of heart failure and their consequences.
 * 25) Changes in cardiac output and hyper-kinetic circulation
 * 26) Left Heart Failure.
 * 27) Right Heart Failure.
 * 28) Pathogenetic factors leading to atherosclerosis. Endothelial Dysfunction.
 * 29) Manifestations and Consequences of Atherosclerosis.
 * 30) Atherosclerosis, Thrombosis and hypertension related to Endothelial Dysfunction
 * 31) Tissue Ischaemia and redistribution of the blood flow (steal phenomena).
 * 32) Thromboembolic Disease.
 * 33) Insufficiency of the Veins. Disorders of the lymphatic drainage.

Lung and Respiration

 * 1) Protective Breathing Reflexes. Cough.
 * 2) Alveolar Hypoventilation.
 * 3) Disturbances of the Ventilation to Perfusion Ratio.
 * 4) Disorders of Gas Diffusion Through the Alveolo-capillary Membrane.
 * 5) Type I and type II respiratory insufficiency.
 * 6) Restrictive disorders reducing lung tissue. Lung Fibrosis.
 * 7) Obstructive disorders affecting mechanics of the lung ventilation.
 * 8) Pathophysiology of the chronic obstructive broncho-pulmonary disease (COPD).
 * 9) Pathophysiology of the emphysema.
 * 10) Pathophysiology of the asthma bronchiale.
 * 11) Pulmonary Atelectasis. Lung Oedema. Pneumonia.
 * 12) Pulmonary Fibrosis
 * 13) Acute Lung Failure. ARDS Syndrome.
 * 14) Pneumothorax.
 * 15) Aspiration of objects and fluids into the lungs. Upper Respiratory Tract Obstruction.
 * 16) Pulmonary Embolization.
 * 17) Oxygenotherapy and mechanical support of lung ventilation

Kidneys and Urinary Tract

 * 1) Disturbances of urine production (oliguria, anuria, polyuria, isostenuria).
 * 2) Prerenal, renal and postrenal causes of renal failure.
 * 3) Disturbances of glomerular function. Proteinuria and Nephrotic Syndrome.
 * 4) Acute Tubular Necrosis.
 * 5) Acute Renal Failure.
 * 6) Chronic Renal Failure. Uremia.
 * 7) Glomerular and tubular changes and other consequences of the chronic renal failure
 * 8) Congenital and acquired tubular dysfunctions.
 * 9) Systemic Effects of the Chronic Renal Failure
 * 10) Comparison of the Ion Changes in Acute and Chronic Renal Failure.
 * 11) Disorders Affecting Concentration and Dilution Functions of the Kidneys.
 * 12) Urolithiasis. Disturbances of urinary bladder emptying.

Gastrointestinal Tract

 * 1) Dental Caries. Parodontosis (periodontal diseases). Salivation Disorders
 * 2) Manifestations of Systemic Diseases in Oral Cavity
 * 3) Disorders of the Swallowing and Passage of the Food in the Oesophagus (dysphagia).
 * 4) Gastro-oesophageal Reflux.
 * 5) Disorders of Gastric Motility. Disturbances of gastric secretion.
 * 6) Nausea and Vomiting
 * 7) Postprandial Syndromes. (Acute and chronic dumping syndrome.)
 * 8) Gastric and duodenal ulcer disease.
 * 9) Acute and chronic gastritis.
 * 10) Disorders of the Exocrine Pancreas. Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis.
 * 11) Ileus.
 * 12) Diarrhea.
 * 13) Malabsorption Syndromes.
 * 14) Non-specific Bowel Inflammations (Crohn ́s disease, ulcerative colitis).
 * 15) Colonic Polyps. Colorectal Carcinoma.
 * 16) Disorders of the large bowel functions. Constipation. Bleeding into the GIT.
 * 17) Disorders of liver excretion and detoxification functions.
 * 18) Liver cirrhosis.
 * 19) Hepatitis. Liver Toxic Damage. Liver Steatosis.
 * 20) Hepatic Failure. Hepatic Encephalopathy.
 * 21) Icterus.
 * 22) Cholestasis.
 * 23) Portal Hypertension. Ascites.
 * 24) Disorders of the gall bladder and tractus choledochus. Cholelithiasis.

Endocrine System

 * 1) Primary and Secondary Endocrine Disturbances. Give examples of receptor and gland disorders.
 * 2) Disturbances of the Hypothalamus-hypophysis Axis.
 * 3) Hypopituitarism.
 * 4) Gigantism. Acromegaly. Diabetes Insipidus.
 * 5) Hyperthyroidism. Graves ́s Disease.
 * 6) Hypothyroidism.
 * 7) Inflammations of the thyroid gland. Goiter.
 * 8) Hypoparathyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism.
 * 9) Hyperaldosteronism.
 * 10) Etio-pathogenetic classification of the Cushing ́s syndrome.
 * 11) Adreno-genital Syndrome.
 * 12) Addison ́s Disease.
 * 13) Pheochromocytoma.
 * 14) Etio-pathogenetic classification of diabetes mellitus. Type 1. diabetes mellitus.
 * 15) Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Metabolic (Reaven ́s) syndrome.
 * 16) Hyperglycemia. Hypoglycemia.
 * 17) Acute complications of diabetes mellitus. Diabetic coma.
 * 18) Chronic complications of diabetes mellitus
 * 19) Disturbances of sexual differentiation in development. Hypogonadism.
 * 20) Disorders of the menstrual cycle. The polycystic ovary syndrome.
 * 21) Causes of male and female infertility.

Neural System

 * 1) Disorders of the neuro-muscle junction.
 * 2) Disorders of the peripheral motoneuron. Neuropathies. Damage and Regeneration of Peripheral Nerves.
 * 3) Disorders of the central motoneuron
 * 4) Lesions of the spinal cord.
 * 5) Disorders of the basal ganglia. Parkinson ́s Disease. Hyperkinetic Disorders.
 * 6) Cerebellar Disorders.
 * 7) Demyelination. Multiple Sclerosis.
 * 8) Disorders of Cognitive Functions. Dementias. Aphasias.
 * 9) Disorders of Consciousness. Consequences of the head injury and the brain damage.
 * 10) Sleep Disorders.
 * 11) Disturbances of the Cerebral Circulation. Cerebral Oedema. Intracranial Hypertension.
 * 12) Disorders of Cerebro-spinal Fluid. Hydrocephalus.
 * 13) Vestibular Disorders.
 * 14) Disorders of Vision
 * 15) Disorders of hearing
 * 16) Pain.
 * 17) Disorders of the autonomic nervous system. Give examples.
 * 18) Seizures and epilepsy.

Bone, Connective Tissue, Skeletal Muscels

 * 1) Osteoporosis.
 * 2) Osteomalacia. Rickets. Renal Osteodystrophy.
 * 3) Bone fractures and their healing.
 * 4) Disturbances of skeletal muscle contraction. Cramps. Tetany. Muscle Atrophy and hypertrophy. Myopathy. Rhabdomyolysis.
 * 5) Vasculitis Caused by Immune Complexes.
 * 6) Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Rheumatoid Arthritis. Scleroderma

Pathophysiological basis of diagnostic procedures (questions related to seminars)

 * 1) Blood cells examination.
 * 2) Laboratory tests for iron stores and iron availability. Laboratory indicators of hemolysis.
 * 3) Blood tests preceding blood transfusion.
 * 4) Clinical and laboratory tests for bleeding disorders. Laboratory tests for hemocoagulation
 * 5) Clinical and laboratory tests for hyper-coagulation states. Dysproteinaemia, paraproteinaemia.
 * 6) Acute phase proteins.
 * 7) Heart cathetrization.
 * 8) Measurements of the cardiac output. Cardiac index.
 * 9) Blood pressure monitoring.
 * 10) EKG signs of disordered impulse formation or conduction. EKG manifestations of myocardial ischaemia.
 * 11) Ergometry
 * 12) Examination of restrictive and obstructive lung diseases.
 * 13) Lung diffusion capacity, distribution of the lung ventilation and perfusion.
 * 14) Examination of blood gases.
 * 15) Spirometry. Whole body plethysmography.
 * 16) Determination of the glomerular fitration rate and renal blood flow.
 * 17) Tests indicating functioning of the renal tubules.
 * 18) Tests for urine concentration
 * 19) Tests for the acid-base balance.
 * 20) Proteinuria.
 * 21) Haematuria. Hemoglobinuria. Hemosiderionuria
 * 22) Urinary casts.
 * 23) Gastroscopy. Gastric secretion. Pancreatic secretion.
 * 24) Tests for intestinal malabsorption.
 * 25) Tests for cholestasis.
 * 26) Tests for necrotic and inflammatory processes in the liver.
 * 27) Indicators of the liver photosynthesis
 * 28) Clinical tests in endocrinology based on the negative feedback control of hormone secretion.
 * 29) Tests for the secondary arterial hypertension.
 * 30) Tests regarding the adeno- and neurohypophysis.
 * 31) Tests regarding the thyroid gland functioning.
 * 32) Immunological tests regarding the thyroid gland functioning
 * 33) Tests of the parathyroid gland functioning and calcium and phosphates metabolism.
 * 34) Tests regarding the suprarenal cortex and medulla.
 * 35) Tests regarding sex hormones.
 * 36) Tests for muscle hypotension, paralysis or muscle tone disorders.
 * 37) Evaluation of the state of consciousness.
 * 38) Neurological tests regarding the pyramidal system.
 * 39) Neurological tests regarding the extrapyramidal system and cerebellum.
 * 40) Neurological tests regarding functioning of the vestibular system.
 * 41) Examination of hearing disorders. Audiogram.
 * 42) Examination of vision disorders. Perimeter.